Nanopore-based analysis of protein characteristics

ABSTRACT

Methods for nanopore-based protein analysis are provided. The methods address the characterization of a target protein analyte, which has a dimension greater than an internal diameter of the nanopore tunnel, and which is also physically associated with a polymer. The methods further comprise applying an electrical potential to the nanopore system to cause the polymer to interact with the nanopore tunnel. The ion current through the nanopore is measured to provide a current pattern reflective of the structure of the portion of the polymer interacting with the nanopore tunnel. This is used as a metric for characterizing the associated protein that does not pass through the nanopore.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/517,996, filed Jul. 22, 2019, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/120,286, filed Aug. 19, 2016 (now U.S. patent Ser. No. 10/359,395), which is the national stage of International Application No. PCT/US2014/067732, filed Nov. 26, 2014, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/941,919, filed Feb. 19, 2014, each of which applications is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT LICENSE RIGHTS

This invention was made with Government support under R01HG005115 awarded by the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) of the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention.

STATEMENT REGARDING SEQUENCE LISTING

The sequence listing associated with this application was provided in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/120,286, which was filed Aug. 19, 2016, in lieu of a paper copy and is hereby incorporated by reference into the specification. The name of the text file containing the sequence listing is 56752_Sequence_final_2017-01-12.txt. The text file is 1.34 KB; was created on Jan. 12, 2017, was previously submitted as part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/120,286; and is submitted herewith via EFS-Web.

BACKGROUND

The ability to provide a fine-scale characterization of protein conformation and movement can provide a wealth of information regarding the protein's function. Several techniques have been developed to provide a great advancement in resolution of such functional protein studies. Assays that incorporate Forster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) provide detectable signals when moieties attached to predetermined protein domains interact within a spatial range. However, FRET signals are generated in bulk assays that aggregate signals from a large number of individual interactions and, thus, are inherently limited in resolution. Other assays avoid the data scatter inherent to bulk assays by addressing the interactions of single-molecules. For example, commonly used tools to conduct measurements on motor enzymes include optical tweezers, magnetic tweezers, tethered particle assays. For example, optical tweezers employ a highly focused laser beam to hold (or repulse) an object, such as a bead. The bead can be attached to a polymer that functions as a tether. The polymer can then be manipulated by a target enzyme that interacts (i.e., applies force) to the polymer. These manipulations are detected by measuring the displacement of the bead (or other object) from the field applied by the laser. To date, optical tweezers can achieve a precision of ˜0.3 nm spatial resolution at ˜1 ms time scales without ensemble averaging. The limitation of this resolution is due, in part, to the long tether of the polymer required to avoid damaging the target protein by the applied laser.

The ability to observe the mechanistic functioning of complex bio-molecules directly, and not just via the input and output of bulk assays, can accelerate health care and address how biological systems really work. However, notwithstanding the advances of single-molecule techniques, a need remains for inexpensive and facile techniques that can address mechanistic movements and conformation states of proteins at improved spatial and temporal resolutions.

SUMMARY

This summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in a simplified form that are further described below in the Detailed Description. This summary is not intended to identify key features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid in determining the scope of the claimed subject matter. This summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in a simplified form that are further described below in the Detailed Description. This summary is not intended to identify key features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid in determining the scope of the claimed subject matter.

In one aspect, this disclosure provides a method of characterizing a protein in a nanopore system. The nanopore system comprises a nanopore disposed in a membrane that separates a first conductive liquid medium from a second conductive liquid medium, wherein the nanopore comprises a tunnel that provides liquid communication between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium, and wherein the protein is physically associated with a polymer in the first conductive liquid medium. The method comprises:

(a) applying an electrical potential between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium to cause the polymer to interact with the nanopore tunnel, wherein at least one dimension of the protein exceeds a diameter of the nanopore tunnel;

(b) measuring an ion current through the nanopore during the interaction of the polymer with the nanopore tunnel to provide a current pattern;

(c) determining a position and/or movement of at least one polymer subunit in the nanopore tunnel from the current pattern; and

(d) associating the position and/or movement of the at least one polymer subunit with a characteristic of the protein.

In one embodiment, the polymer is a nucleic acid, PNA, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the nucleic acid is DNA, RNA, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the nucleic acid comprises an abasic residue. In one embodiment, the nucleic acid is not a homopolymer.

In one embodiment, the protein is an enzyme. In one embodiment, the enzyme is a molecular motor. In one embodiment, the molecular motor is a translocase, a polymerase, a helicase, an exonuclease, a viral packaging motor, or a topoisomerase. In one embodiment, the enzyme is a Brownian motor, Brownian ratchet ribosome, myosin, or kinesin. In one embodiment, the protein is a mutant protein or fusion protein. In one embodiment, the protein comprises two or more domains capable of mutual interaction. In one embodiment, the protein is covalently coupled to the polymer.

In one embodiment, the position and/or movement of the at least one polymer subunit can be resolved to about 35 pm. In one embodiment, the position of the at least one polymer subunit is associated with a conformational state of the protein. In one embodiment, the movement of the at least one polymer subunit is associated with a length of a discrete translocation step of the polymer within the nanopore tunnel that is conferred by the molecular motor. In one embodiment, the movement of the at least one polymer subunit is associated with a temporal duration of a discrete translocation step of the polymer within the nanopore tunnel that is conferred by the molecular motor. The temporal duration can be resolved to about 800 ns. In one embodiment, the movement of the at least one polymer subunit is associated with an incidence rate of polymer translocation missteps committed by the molecular motor. In one embodiment, the characteristic of the enzyme is a presence or degree of modulation of enzyme activity conferred by a reaction condition or putative agonist, antagonist, or co-factor.

In one embodiment, the nanopore is a solid-state nanopore, a protein nanopore, a hybrid solid state-protein nanopore, a biologically adapted solid-state nanopore, or a DNA origami nanopore. In one embodiment, the protein nanopore is alpha-hemolysin, leukocidin, Mycobacterium smegmatis porin A (MspA), outer membrane porin F (OmpF), outer membrane porin G (OmpG), outer membrane phospholipase A, Neisseria autotransporter lipoprotein (NalP), WZA, Nocardia farcinica NfpA/NfpB cationic selective channel, lysenin or a homolog or variant thereof. In one embodiment, the protein nanopore sequence is modified to contain at least one amino acid substitution, deletion, or addition. In one embodiment, the at least one amino acid substitution, deletion, or addition results in a net charge change in the nanopore. In one embodiment, the protein nanopore has a constriction zone with a non-negative charge.

In one embodiment, the electrical potential applied is between 10 mV and 1 V or between −10 mV and −1 V.

In another aspect, the disclosure provides a method of characterizing a protein in a nanopore system. The comprises a nanopore disposed in a membrane that separates a first conductive liquid medium from a second conductive liquid medium, wherein the nanopore comprises a tunnel that provides liquid communication between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium, and wherein the protein is physically associated with a polymer in the first conductive liquid medium. The method comprises:

(a) applying an electrical potential between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium to cause the polymer to interact with the nanopore tunnel, wherein at least one dimension of the protein exceeds a diameter of the nanopore tunnel;

(b) measuring an ion current through the nanopore during the interaction of the polymer with the nanopore tunnel to provide a first current pattern;

(c) comparing the first current pattern to a reference current pattern;

(d) determining a change in position and/or movement of at least one polymer subunit in the nanopore tunnel from the position and/or movement of at least one polymer subunit in the nanopore tunnel determined from the reference current pattern; and

(e) associating the change in position and/or movement of the at least one polymer subunit in the nanopore tunnel with a characteristic of the enzyme.

In one embodiment, the nanopore system comprises a difference from the nanopore system used to generate the reference current pattern. In one embodiment, the difference is the presence or absence of a putative protein agonist, antagonist, or co-factor in the first conductive medium. In one embodiment, the difference is a difference concentration of a putative protein agonist, antagonist, or co-factor in the first conductive medium. In one embodiment, the characteristic is a presence or degree of modulation of protein activity or conformation conferred by the putative agonist, antagonist, or co-factor. In one embodiment, the difference is at least one amino acid difference in the amino acid sequence of the protein compared to the amino acid protein sequence in the nanopore system used to generate the reference current pattern. In one embodiment, the characteristic is a presence or degree of modulation of protein activity or conformation conferred by the amino acid difference in the amino acid sequence. In one embodiment, the method further comprises generating a reference current pattern.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing aspects and many of the attendant advantages of this invention will become more readily appreciated as the same become better understood by reference to the following detailed description, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein:

FIG. 1A is a cartoon illustration of an exemplary nanopore system useful in the practice of the present disclosure. Schematically, a single nanopore (e.g., MspA) is embedded in a phospholipid bilayer that separates two volumes of conductive liquid media, such as an electrolyte mixture. A voltage across the bilayer causes an ion current to flow through the interior of the nanopore. A protein, such as a molecular motor enzyme, is physically associated with a polymer (e.g., DNA) that is drawn to the interior of the nanopore. The single stranded end passes into and through the nanopore until the protein, which exceeds the largest diameter of the interior tunnel of the nanopore, comes to rest on the pore. The ion current in the nanopore tunnel is influenced by the nucleotide structures (thus identity) within the narrowest portion of the nanopore tunnel (“constriction”).

FIG. 1B is a graphical illustration of a representative current pattern produced by a nanopore system using an MspA nanopore and DNA associated with a phi29 DNA polymerase enzyme. The current pattern indicates that the DNA is moved through the nanopore by the phi29 DNA polymerase (DNAP) enzyme in discrete translocation steps. The observed current levels can be associated with DNA sequence. Occasional back-stepping activity of the phi29 DNAP causes repetitions of levels indicated by *.

FIG. 1C is a graphical representation of the time-ordered mean ion current values derived from the original, stochastic level durations.

FIGS. 2A-2F illustrate the process and sensitivity of the PINT system by characterizing at a small scale the DNA movement in the nanopore for protein analysis.

FIG. 2A graphically illustrates the current levels (solid black lines) corresponding to the shown DNA sequence sequence (set forth as SEQ ID NO:1), which provide a distance measure (in nt). A spline profile (curved line) is used to demonstrate distances in between levels. The standard deviation of the current levels yield the precision to which distances can be measured. X in the indicated sequence represents an abasic residue. FIG. 2B is a cartoon illustration of DNA moving within the constriction of MspA by a distance δ. FIG. 2C graphically illustrates current levels corresponding to the shown DNA sequence (set forth as SEQ ID NO:2) observed from the nanopore system at 180 mV (circles), and at 140 mV (triangles). FIG. 2D graphically illustrates current values for 180 mV (circles) and a spline fit to those levels (dotted curve). Triangles present the levels taken at 140 mV, as illustrated in FIG. 2C, after a multiplicative scale and additive offset. For the scaled 140 mV levels, the horizontal position is displaced by 0.3 nt to put the levels in-line with the spline profile for the current levels observed at 180 mV. This indicates the applied voltage shifts the DNA within MspA by 0.3 nt. FIG. 2E illustrates the corresponding observed time-ordered mean ion current levels derived from the original current pattern where the DNA was moved by phi29 DNAP. The levels correspond to the DNA sequence (set forth as SEQ ID NO:3) and hence, the physical displacement of the DNA sequence relative to MspA. A dashed line overlays current levels to indicate the current profile corresponding to the specific DNA sequence when moving continuously through the nanopore. FIG. 2F graphically illustrates the observed time-ordered mean ion current levels derived from the original current pattern where the same DNA (set forth as SEQ ID NO:3) was moved by hel308 TGA. When DNA motion is controlled by the translocase activity of hel308 TGA, a level profile directly comparable to that generated by DNA translocation controlled by phi29 DNAP is observed. However, the hel308 TGA current pattern shows twice as many levels for the same DNA sequence. This suggests that hel308 TGA moves DNA twice per nucleotide, relative to MspA.

FIGS. 3A-3G illustrate the nanopore-based analysis of DNA translocation steps controlled by hel308. The DNA sequence in FIG. 3A is set forth as SEQ ID NO:4.

FIG. 3A graphically illustrates a consensus current level pattern generated in a nanopore system for a DNA polymer associated with phi29 DNA polymerase.

FIG. 3B graphically illustrates a consensus current level pattern generated in the same nanopore system for the same DNA polymer as in FIG. 3A, but where the DNA is associated with the helicase hel308 TGA. Each one-nucleotide translation along the DNA is divided into two distinct steps, compared to FIG. 3A. All helicase data are taken at the experimental conditions of 22° C., 300 mM KCl, 5 mM MgCl₂ and 180 mV.

FIG. 3C graphically illustrates the half-life of current levels indicated in FIG. 3B. The level duration alternates between long and short durations. The duration of every other level is dependent on ATP concentration (“[ATP]”), as determined by using different concentrations of ATP: 10 μM ATP (dashed lines) and 1000 μM ATP (solid lines).

FIG. 3D graphically illustrates that the difference of the durations with high and with low [ATP] removes sequence dependence that also influences the step durations.

FIG. 3E graphically illustrates the average durations of levels versus [ATP]⁻¹ for ATP-independent steps (long dashed lines) and the ATP-dependent steps (short dashed lines). For the ATP-independent steps we measured an average rate of 4.5+/0.4 s⁻¹. For the ATP-dependent steps, we observed Michaelis Menton kinetics with a maximum velocity of 15.2+/−1.3/s and the Michaelis constant of 92.5+/−9.9 μmol.

FIG. 3F graphically illustrates that half-life of levels depend on the identity of the nucleotide that had passed through the constriction: A=alternating long-short dash, C=solid, G=light, short dash, T=heavy, long dash; the lower set of lines represent the ATP-dependent steps and upper set represent the ATP-independent steps with [ATP] at 500 μM. The peaks at 14, 17, and 18 indicate positions located within the enzyme where G, T, or C's, respectively, cause longer level durations.

FIG. 3G graphically illustrates the phase of steps relative to the phi29 DNAP. The ATP-independent steps are represented as solid bars and the ATP-dependent steps are represented in open bars. The average hel308 step length between ATP-independent and ATP-dependent steps is 0.53±0.04 nt. Average uncertainties are standard deviations of the mean. The ion current uncertainties for the levels means illustrated in FIG. 3A are, on average smaller, than the line width, <0.1 pA.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure relates to the inventors' advancements to the analysis and characterization of target proteins using nanopore based systems.

Nanopore systems have been previously employed to characterize a variety of analytes, such as small molecules and polymers. These methods generally involve passing the target analyte through a nanoscopic opening while monitoring a detectable signal, such as an electrical signal. The signal is influenced by the physical properties of the target analyte as it passes through the nanopore and, thus, can be associated with a structural feature of the analyte, such as its identity. When addressing polymeric analytes, for example, single-stranded DNA (“ssDNA”), the discrete detectable signals can be influenced by the structure of each consecutive polymer subunit when the polymer passes linearly through the nanopore, thus providing information regarding the sequence of the polymer.

The present inventors have co-opted the above nanopore system approach to investigate larger analytes that are unable to pass through the nanopore opening, instead of small analytes that can enter the interior space of the nanopore. As described in more detail below, the inventors discovered that important features of larger protein analytes can be characterized using nanopore systems, notwithstanding the fact that they do not pass through the nanopore. Briefly stated, in this novel approach a polymer is associated with the target protein. As the polymer interacts with the interior of the nanopore tunnel, the associated protein is pulled toward the opening rim of the nanopore but cannot pass through due to its size. Using this information, the polymer can now be used as a measurement tool to ascertain a distance between the nanopore constriction zone and the target protein to a resolution as small as 30-40 picometers. Furthermore, the polymer-protein association need not be static, but can be dynamic. In this case, the polymer's movements through the nanopore can be monitored in real time with a resolution shorter than a millisecond, such as to about 700 microseconds or 800 microseconds. Accordingly, a wide variety of protein characteristics can be investigated at spatial and temporal resolutions heretofore unseen in existing technologies, such as with molecular tweezers and FRET analysis. As will be discussed, the nanopore system can be configured to address a wide variety of protein characteristics, such as the nature of folding and conformational changes, the structural and conformational effects of mutations in protein sequence, and the nature of molecular motor-polymer interactions. Moreover, these experimental configurations can be applied to broader investigations of potential drug panels and their effects on the activity of enzymes, such as molecular motors, and the like. These and other advantages and applications will become more apparent in view of the below description.

In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of characterizing a protein in a nanopore system. In this method, the protein is physically associated with a polymer. The method comprises the steps of: (a) applying an electrical potential between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium of the nanopore system to cause the polymer to interact with the nanopore tunnel; (b) measuring an ion current through the nanopore during the interaction of the polymer with the nanopore tunnel to provide a current pattern; (c) determining a position and/or movement of at least one polymer subunit in the nanopore tunnel from the current pattern; and (d) associating the position and/or movement of the at least one polymer subunit with a characteristic of the protein.

Various aspects of nanopore systems encompassed by the present disclosure are described in more detail below. Generally described, the nanopore system comprises a nanopore disposed in a membrane that separates a first conductive liquid medium from a second conductive liquid medium. The nanopore generally forms an interior tunnel that provides liquid communication between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium. In the present aspect, the protein is disposed in the first conductive liquid medium and is physically associated with the polymer.

As used herein, the term “physically associated” can refer to a covalent bond to provide a permanent or static association between the protein and the polymer. Alternatively, the term can refer to a non-covalent bond or association between the protein and the polymer. This encompasses embodiments where the protein can have a dynamic physical association with the polymer, such as in the case of many molecular motor enzymes that can contact and apply force to polymer molecules (e.g., nucleic acids) and may move along the length of the polymer in a dynamic movement.

In this method, at least one dimension of the protein exceeds a diameter of the nanopore tunnel. Accordingly, any movement of the associated polymer into the interior space of the nanopore does not result in the passage of the protein itself through the nanopore. Instead, the protein is merely pulled into contact with the outer rim entrance of the nanopore and comes to rest at the outer rim of the nanopore with no further progression towards the opposite side of the membrane. Thus, the protein provides an anchor, whether dynamic or substantially static, to the polymer, that provides resistance to further movement of the polymer into (and possibly through) the nanopore. Thus, by virtue of the protein's position of the protein at the outer rim entrance of the nanopore, the protein's association with the polymer results in a controlled rate of polymer movement (or a substantial prevention of further movement) into or through the nanopore.

The protein is the target analyte for the present disclosure. It will be appreciated that the present disclosure can be widely applied to any target protein of interest for a wide variety of assays. Thus, the present disclosure is not limited to a particular target protein-type. The two limitations are that the protein must have at least one dimension that exceeds an internal diameter of the nanopore to prevent passage of the protein through the nanopore (described above) and that the protein must be capable or amenable to a physical association to the polymer. It will be appreciated that the protein can be any naturally occurring protein, any modified (e.g., engineered) protein, including mutated or fusion proteins. Several categories of potential proteins will be described, although it is noted that these descriptions are merely for illustration purposes and are not intended to be limiting.

In some embodiments, the protein is an enzyme. Broadly defined, and enzyme is a polypeptide macromolecule that, when properly folded into a tertiary structure, can perform work such as catalyze a reaction.

In some embodiments, the enzyme is a molecular motor. A “molecular motor” is broadly defined as a protein, such as an enzyme, that interacts with a particular polymer, such as a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the interaction involves some force applied to the polymer. In a natural situation, the force might result in the attachment of the molecular motor to the polymer, movement of the molecular motor along the polymer, or a change in conformation or shape of the polymer. The force can result in the manipulation of the polymer, such as causing the movement of the polymer in the nanopore system. The molecular motor can be active, i.e., using energy such as ATP to move or interact with the polymer. Such molecular motors can encompass moieties that can move the polymer against the force direction applied by the voltage cross the nanopore. Alternatively, the molecular motor can be passive, i.e., not using energy to move or interact with the polymer. The present disclosure is useful to characterize the nature of the association between the molecular motor and the particular polymer. For example, many molecular motors move along a nucleic acid strand in discrete and repetitive steps. Such molecular motors, when immobilized against the outer rim entrance of the nanopore, facilitate movement of the nucleic acid in discrete steps through the nanopore in a stepwise fashion where the nucleic acid progresses in discrete movements of a relatively consistent length, akin to a ratchet or queuing motion. Some molecular motors, such as phi29 DNA polymerase (DNAP), move the nucleic acid polymers in single measurable nucleotides steps through the nanopore. However, it will be appreciated that other molecular motors are useful for moving the nucleic acid polymers in steps that are less than a single nucleotide length. Yet other molecular motors are useful for moving the nucleic acid polymers in steps that are more than a single nucleotide in length.

The present method can be used to measure characteristics such as the distance of each movement at a sub-Angstrom resolution by monitoring the resultant movement of the polymer through the nanopore. The method can also be used to characterize the energy requirements of the molecular motor action, by adjusting the availability of chemical energy (such as the concentration of ATP). As another example, the putative co-factors, agonist, antagonist, or any other potential reaction condition can be tested to ascertain the changes conferred on the monitored movement of the polymer through the nanopore. As yet another example, the method can be applied to characterize the rate of the polymer movement through the pore facilitated by the protein in any particular reaction condition or environment. Moreover, molecular motors often commit mistakes wherein the molecular motor skips a step or backs up and repeats a movement step. Such skips or toggles can be detected in the current patterns. See PCT/US2014/059360, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

Illustrative, nonlimiting examples of such molecular motors are provided below.

The molecular motor can be a naturally occurring enzyme, an engineered or mutated enzyme, or otherwise derived from an enzyme. In some embodiments, the molecular motor is modified to remove a particular function from the enzyme, but preserves the ability of the molecular motor to associate with the polymer analyte (e.g., nucleic acid) and facilitate its movement within the nanopore. In some embodiments, the enzyme is or is derived from a member of any of the Enzyme Classification (EC) groups 3.1.11, 3.1.13, 3.1.14, 3.1.15, 3.1.16, 3.1.21, 3.1.22, 3.1.25, 3.1.26, 3.1.27, 3.1.30 and 3.1.31. The enzyme maybe any of those disclosed in International Publication No. WO 2010/1086603, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

In some embodiments, the enzyme is a translocase, a polymerase, a helicase, an exonuclease, or topoisomerase, and the like.

Many exemplary exonucleases are generally described in WO 2010/1086603, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Other examples are exonucleases, which can include exonuclease I, exonuclease III, lambda exonuclease, or a variant or homolog thereof. For any aspect herein, homologs, derivatives, and other variant proteins, as described herein, can preferably be at least 50% homologous to the reference protein based on amino acid sequence identity. More preferably, the variant polypeptide may be at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90% and more preferably at least 95%, 97%, or 99% homologous based on amino acid identity to the reference protein, or any range derivable therein. Homology can be determined by any method accepted in the art. Thus, homologs or variants can possess sequence and structural modifications. The present disclosure can be useful to determine or otherwise characterize the functional similarities and/or differences that result from the indicated differences. While exonucleases often contain enzymatic functions for excising portions of the nucleic acids, such enzymes can be modified to ablate such nuclease function while preserving the ability to bind and move the nucleic acid polymer.

Exemplary helicases that can be target proteins are generally described in WO 2014/013260 and WO 2013/057495, each reference incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, and can include a hel308 helicase, a RecD helicase, a Tral helicase, a Tral subgroup helicase, an XPD helicases, or a variant or homolog thereof.

Exemplary polymerases that can be target proteins include DNA polymerases such as phi29 DNA polymerase (sometimes referred to as phi29 DNAP), Klenow fragment, or a variant or homolog thereof.

Exemplary topoisomerases can include a gyrase, or a variant or homolog thereof.

Other target proteins include viral packaging motors, or any other viral or pathogen enzyme that facilitates invasion, replication, or other pathogenic function by the pathogen.

Yet other exemplary target proteins include Brownian motors, Brownian ratchet ribosome, myosin, kinesin, and the like, as are known in the art.

As indicated above, the present method can also be applied to characterize conformational states of proteins. In this regard, the wildtype target protein need not have any affinity for associating with the polymer. Instead the polymer can be covalently coupled to the protein according to any standard and commonly recognized technique in the art. In this context, the conformational state can be characterized by the position of a particular polymer subunit within the nanopore. This is indicative of the distance between the protein and the particular polymer subunit, or indeed the constriction zone of the nanopore. Any change in this conformational state can result in minute changes in this distance, which are detectable in this system. Thus, multiple proteins can be compared (using the same polymer-type attached in the same manner, i.e., to the same amino acid residue of the protein). This permits mutational studies to characterize the conformational changes that result from the introduction of one or more mutations into a protein sequence. Additionally, a protein may be a natural or fusion protein that comprises two or more domains that mutually interact, thus causing a conformational change. The various parameters of this interaction can be inferred by measuring the movement of the polymer in the nanopore, such as the frequency, duration, and quality (inferred by distance of polymer movement).

In the present method, the application of an electrical potential across the membrane (i.e., between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium) causes the polymer to interact with the nanopore tunnel. Typically, the polymer analyte (e.g., nucleic acid) interacts with the nanopore tunnel in a linear fashion where the polymer is extended linearly along the axis of the nanopore tunnel. In some embodiments, this axis is transverse to the membrane. The term “interact,” when used with respect to the nanopore tunnel, indicates that the polymer moves into at least an interior portion of the nanopore to an extent that the presence of the polymer influences the measurable ion current that runs through the nanopore tunnel. As described in more detail below, many nanopores have a “constriction” or “constriction zone,” which is an area of the internal tunnel that has the smallest diameter and, thus, where the current is most likely to be differentially affected by the presence of varying polymer structures.

The polymers encompassed by this disclosure can be any polymer capable of 1) an association with the target protein, and 2) an interaction with the interior tunnel of the nanopore such that an ionic current through the nanopore can be measurably affected by the structure of the polymer. In practice, the polymer serves as a yardstick to characterize distance between the protein, to which the polymer is attached and is situated at the outer rim opening of the nanopore, and the region within the tunnel where the presence of the polymer can affect the measurable current within the pore (often referred to as the “constriction zone”). Measurement of this distance is possible because the position of polymer subunits can be monitored within the nanopore due to the variations in the current pattern observed during the assay. The determination of the position within a nanopore of a polymer nucleotide subunit in a nucleic acid polymer is described in more detail in PCT/US2014/059360, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

As used herein, a “polymer” refers to any macromolecule that comprises two or more linear units (also known as a “mers” or “subunits”), where each subunit may be the same or different. Non-limiting examples of polymers encompassed by the present disclosure include nucleic acids, peptides, and proteins, as well as a variety of hydrocarbon polymers (e.g., polyethylene, polystyrene) and functionalized hydrocarbon polymers, wherein the backbone of the polymer comprises a carbon chain (e.g., polyvinyl chloride, polymethacrylates). The term “polymer” can also include copolymers, block copolymers, and branched polymers such as star polymers and dendrimers.

In any embodiment, there is no requirement that the polymer sequence be known a priori, or even be decipherable from the current patterns produced in the nanopore system. Instead, among the polymer subunits a measureable change in the ion current can be produced and the position of the structural variation in the polymer be ascertainable relative to the nanopore tunnel and/or the position of the protein at the outer entrance rim. Accordingly, in some embodiments the polymer (e.g., nucleic acid) is not a homopolymer.

The term “nucleic acid” refers to any polymer molecule that comprises multiple nucleotide subunits (i.e., a polynucleotide). Nucleic acids encompassed by the present disclosure can include deoxyribonucleotide polymer (DNA), ribonucleotide polymer (RNA), cDNA or a synthetic nucleic acid known in the art, such as peptide nucleic acid (PNA), glycerol nucleic acid (GNA), threose nucleic acid (TNA), locked nucleic acid (LNA) or other synthetic polymers with nucleotide side chains, or any combination thereof. The nucleic acids can be in either single- or double-stranded form, or comprise both single and double stranded portions. Typically cDNA, RNA, GNA, TNA, or LNA are single stranded. DNA can be either double stranded (dsDNA) or single stranded (ssDNA).

Nucleotide subunits of the nucleic acid polymers can be naturally occurring or artificial or modified. A nucleotide typically contains a nucleobase, a sugar, and at least one phosphate group. The nucleobase is typically heterocyclic. Suitable nucleobases include purines and pyrimidines and more specifically adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T) (or typically in RNA, uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)), and cytosine (C). The sugar is typically a pentose sugar. Suitable sugars include, but are not limited to, ribose and deoxyribose. The nucleotide is typically a ribonucleotide or deoxyribonucleotide. The nucleotide typically contains a monophosphate, diphosphate, or triphosphate. These are generally referred to herein as nucleotides or nucleotide residues to indicate the subunit. Without specific identification, the general terms nucleotides, nucleotide residues, and the like, are not intended to imply any specific structure or identity. The nucleotides can also be synthetic or modified. For example, the nucleotide can be labeled or modified to act as a marker with a distinct signal. Furthermore, before the application of the electric potential, modifications can be applied to the nucleic acid that selectively affects the structure of a limited nucleotide-type to enhance the differentiation of the resulting signal for the targeted residue (subunit). For example, see International Application No. PCT/US2014/53754, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. One particular advantageous strategy for the practice of the present disclosure is to incorporate a nucleic acid residue with a missing base structure, for example, an abasic unit or spacer in the polynucleotide. This is particularly advantageous because abasic residues have been observed to result in a marked current spike (i.e., sharp increase in current) when positioned within the constriction zone. Accordingly, the specific position of the abasic residue (or residues) can be readily monitored with little risk of signal confusion. This provides a useful signal for monitoring the position and movement of the abasic residue through the nanopore, as permitted or influenced by the associated protein.

The present disclosure also encompasses the use of polypeptides as the polymer. A “polypeptide” is a macromolecule of multiple amino acids linked by peptide (amide) bonds. As used herein, an “amino acid” refers to any of the naturally occurring amino acids found in proteins, D-stereoisomers of the naturally occurring amino acids (e.g., D-threonine), unnatural amino acids, and chemically modified amino acids. Each of these types of amino acids is not mutually exclusive. α-Amino acids comprise a carbon atom to which is bonded an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a distinctive group referred to as a “side chain.” The side chains of naturally occurring amino acids are well known in the art and include, for example, hydrogen (e.g., as in glycine), alkyl (e.g., as in alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline), substituted alkyl (e.g., as in threonine, serine, methionine, cysteine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid, glutamine, arginine, and lysine), arylalkyl (e.g., as in phenylalanine and tryptophan), substituted arylalkyl (e.g., as in tyrosine), and heteroarylalkyl (e.g., as in histidine).

The following abbreviations are used for the 20 naturally occurring canonical amino acids: alanine (Ala; A), asparagine (Asn; N), aspartic acid (Asp; D), arginine (Arg; R), cysteine (Cys; C), glutamic acid (Glu; E), glutamine (Gln; Q), glycine (Gly; G), histidine (His; H), isoleucine (Ile; I), leucine (Leu; L), lysine (Lys; K), methionine (Met; M), phenylalanine (Phe; F), proline (Pro; P), serine (Ser; S), threonine (Thr; T), tryptophan (Trp; W), tyrosine (Tyr; Y), and valine (Val; V).

Unnatural amino acids (that is, those that are not naturally found in proteins) are also known in the art, as set forth in, for example, Mol. Cell. Biol., 9: 2574 (1989); J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 112:4011-4030 (1990); J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 56:1280-1283 (1991); J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 113:9276-9286 (1991); and all references cited therein. β- and γ-amino acids are known in the art and are also contemplated herein as unnatural amino acids.

As used herein, a “chemically modified amino acid” refers to an amino acid whose side chain has been chemically modified. For example, a side chain may be modified to comprise a signaling moiety, such as a fluorophore or a radiolabel. A side chain may be modified to comprise a new functional group, such as a thiol, carboxylic acid, or amino group. Post-translationally modified amino acids are also included in the definition of chemically modified amino acids.

As described above, the current patterns produced in the described systems that contain a target protein associated with a polymer can be used to ascertain a characteristic of the protein. This is enabled by the discovery that such nanopore systems can permit a highly resolved inference of the position of a single polymer subunit within the nanopore, and changes in that position over minute ranges of time. This analysis is based on a preliminary force spectroscopy investigation on single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) within a nanopore. The inventors previously found that an anchored DNA analyte stretches within the constriction zone of MspA with increasing force, as applied with an increased electric potential in the nanopore system. By varying electric potential in the nanopore system and simultaneously monitoring the resulting current, the stretching of the DNA within the nanopore was characterized at angstrom-level precision. Using a freely jointed chain model to assess the stretching, the relative positions of the nucleotides were characterized during the stretch events and ascertaining the relative contribution of Brownian motion to the sensitivity of the nanopore system to multiple nucleotides was established.

Due to the insight from the spring modeling analysis, the positions of the nucleotides can be calculated at any point during the DNA interaction with the nanopore tunnel. Thus the current pattern is amenable to analysis that identifies any current pattern as corresponding to a segment of the nucleic acid residing in the constriction zone of the nanopore associated with the application of an electrical potential. Thus, in some embodiments, the conversion of the current-potential curve into a current-nucleic acid distance curve is accomplished by application of a spring-based model. In some embodiments, the model is a model of spring with a linear restoring force. In some embodiments, the model is a non-linear restoring force as in a freely jointed chain (FJC) model or modified freely jointed chain (FJC) model, as described in more detail below. Other appropriate models can be applied according to the skill in the art. See PCT/US2014/059360, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of characterizing a protein in a nanopore system. As above, the protein in this aspect is physically associated with a polymer. The method of this aspect specifically comprises: (a) applying an electrical potential between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium to cause the polymer to interact with the nanopore tunnel; (b) measuring an ion current through the nanopore during the interaction of the polymer with the nanopore tunnel to provide a first current pattern; (c) comparing the first current pattern to a reference current pattern; (d) determining a change in position and/or movement of at least one polymer subunit in the nanopore tunnel from the position and/or movement of at least one polymer subunit in the nanopore tunnel determined from the reference current pattern; and (e) associating the change in position and/or movement of the at least one polymer subunit in the nanopore tunnel with a characteristic of the enzyme.

Various aspects of nanopore systems encompassed by the present disclosure are described in more detail below. Generally described, the nanopore system comprises a nanopore disposed in a membrane that separates a first conductive liquid medium from a second conductive liquid medium, wherein the nanopore comprises a tunnel that provides liquid communication between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium, and wherein the protein is physically associated with a polymer in the first conductive liquid medium.

As described above, the at least one dimension of the protein exceeds a diameter of the nanopore tunnel.

The present parameters and features of this method are as described in context of the method above. In this aspect, the method involved comparing the first current pattern to a reference current pattern. Thus, this method is applicable to an experimental setup to ascertain the effect of one or more changes in conditions of a reaction. The effect is ideally attributable to a characteristic or effect on the target protein. Thus, when a difference is detected between the polymer positions, as reflected in the first current pattern and a reference current pattern, the difference can be attributed to a change in the assay conditions that produced each respective current pattern. Thus, the conditions of the assay in the recited nanopore system comprises a perturbation, or difference, compared to the conditions used to generate the reference current pattern.

In some embodiments, the difference can be the addition or removal of a putative protein agonist, antagonist, or co-factor. In such embodiments, the method can be employed to test one or more of a panel of potential factors suspected of influencing a protein. For example, factors suspected of potentially specifically inhibiting a viral helicase can be tested and the ability of the helicase to move along DNA characterized by measuring the rate of movement of the DNA polymer in the nanopore.

In other embodiments, mutations in the protein that are suspected of altering the interaction with nucleic acid polymers can be tested by characterizing the speed, frequency, or character of nucleic acid movements.

In other embodiments, the difference can be a difference in reaction conditions, such as a difference in the presence of a co-factor, or an alteration in the co-factor. In other embodiments, the difference can be a change in the concentration (either higher or lower) of components like ATP, and the like.

The first and reference current patterns can be generated in the same or different nanopore system setup with the same or different protein and associated polymer. In some embodiments, the system, protein, and polymer are substantial duplicates but for the particular introduced perturbation. In some embodiments, the method comprises generating the reference current pattern. In some embodiments, the reference current pattern is generated before or after the first current pattern is generated, wherein the patterns are each generated before or after the introduction of the perturbation, respectively. In some embodiments, the perturbation is introduced into the system and the effect on the conformation of the protein is ascertained by ascertaining the changes in polymer (or polymer subunit) position or movement within the nanopore.

Various aspects of the nanopore systems as employed in the present disclosure are described below.

Nanopore-based analysis methods have previously been investigated for the characterization of analytes that are passed through the nanopore. The systems permit the passing of a polymeric molecule, for example, single-stranded DNA (“ssDNA”), through a nanoscopic opening while providing a signal, such as an electrical signal, that is influenced by the physical properties of the polymer subunits that reside in the close physical space of the nanopore tunnel at any given time. The nanopore optimally has a size or three-dimensional configuration that allows the polymer to pass only in a sequential, single file order. Under theoretically optimal conditions, the polymer molecule passes through the nanopore at a rate such that the passage of each discrete monomeric subunit of the polymer can be correlated with the monitored signal. Differences in the chemical and physical properties of each monomeric subunit that makes up the polymer, for example, the nucleotides that compose an ssDNA, result in characteristic electrical signals that can identify each monomeric subunit as it passes through the nanopore. Nanopores, such as solid state nanopores and protein nanopores held within lipid bilayer membranes, have been heretofore used for analysis of DNA, RNA, and polypeptides and, thus, provide an advantageous platform for a robust analysis of polymer position and movement as a reflection on an associated protein.

A “nanopore” specifically refers to a pore typically having a size of the order of nanometres that allows the passage of analyte polymers (such as nucleic acids) therethrough. Typically, nanopores encompassed by the present disclosure have an opening with a diameter at its most narrow point of about 0.3 nm to about 2 nm. Nanopores useful in the present disclosure include any pore capable of permitting the linear translocation of the analyte polymer from one side to the other at a velocity amenable to monitoring techniques, such as techniques to detect current fluctuations.

Nanopores can be biological nanopores (e.g., proteinaceious nanopores), solid state nanopores, hybrid solid state protein nanopores, a biologically adapted solid state nanopore, a DNA origami nanopore, and the like.

In some embodiments, the nanopore comprises a protein, such as alpha-hemolysin, anthrax toxin and leukocidins, and outer membrane proteins/porins of bacteria such as Mycobacterium smegmatis porins (Msp), including MspA, outer membrane porins such as OmpF, OmpG, OmpATb, and the like, outer membrane phospholipase A and Neisseria autotransporter lipoprotein (NaIP), and lysenin, as described in U.S. Publication No. US2012/0055792, International PCT Publication Nos. WO2011/106459, WO2011/106456, WO2013/153359, and Manrao et al., “Reading DNA at single-nucleotide resolution with a mutant MspA nanopore and phi29 DNA polymerase,” Nat. Biotechnol. 30:349-353 (2012), each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Nanopores can also include alpha-helix bundle pores that comprise a barrel or channel that is formed from a-helices. Suitable a-helix bundle pores include, but are not limited to, inner membrane proteins and an outer membrane proteins, such as WZA and ClyA toxin. In one embodiment, the protein nanopore is a heteroligomeric cationic selective channel from Nocardia faricinica formed by NfpA and NfpB subunits. The nanopore can also be a homolog or derivative of any nanopore illustrated above. A “homolog,” as used herein, is a gene or protein from another species that has a similar structure and evolutionary origin. By way of an example, homologs of wild-type MspA, such as MppA, PorM1, PorM2, and Mmcs4296, can serve as the nanopore in the present invention. Protein nanopores have the advantage that, as biomolecules, they self-assemble and are essentially identical to one another. In addition, it is possible to genetically engineer protein nanopores, thus creating a “derivative” of a nanopore, such as those illustrated above, that possesses various attributes. Such derivatives can result from substituting amino acid residues for amino acids with different charges, from the creation of a fusion protein (e.g., an enzyme+alpha-hemolysin). Thus, the protein nanopores can be wild-type or can be modified to contain at least one amino acid substitution, deletion, or addition. In some embodiments, the at least one amino acid substitution, deletion, or addition results in a different net charge of the nanopore. In some embodiments, the difference in net charge increases the difference of net charge as compared to the first charged moiety of the polymer analyte. For example, if the first charged moiety has a net negative charge, the at least one amino acid substitution, deletion, or addition results in a nanopore that is less negatively charged. In some cases, the resulting net charge is negative (but less so), is neutral (where it was previously negative), is positive (where it was previously negative or neutral), or is more positive (where it was previously positive but less so). In some embodiments, the alteration of charges in the nanopore entrance rim or within the interior of the tunnel and/or constriction facilitate the entrance and interaction of the polymer with the nanopore tunnel.

In some embodiments, the nanopores can include or comprise DNA-based structures, such as generated by DNA origami techniques. For descriptions of DNA origami-based nanopores for analyte detection, see PCT Publication No. WO2013/083983, incorporated herein by reference.

In some embodiments, the nanopore is an MspA or homolog or derivative thereof. MspA is formed from multiple monomers. The pore may be homomonomeric or heteromonomeric, where one or more of the monomers contains a modification or difference from the others in the assembled nanopore. Descriptions of modifications to MspA nanopores have been described, see U.S. Publication No. 2012/0055792, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Briefly described, MspA nanopores can be modified with amino acid substitutions to result in a MspA mutant with a mutation at position 93, a mutation at position 90, position 91, or both positions 90 and 91, and optionally one or more mutations at any of the following amino acid positions: 88, 105, 108, 118, 134, or 139, with reference to the wild type amino acid sequence. In one specific embodiment, the MspA contains the mutations D90N/D91N/D93N, with reference to the wild type sequence positions (referred to therein as “M1MspA” or “M1-NNN”). In another embodiment, the MspA contains the mutations D90N/D91N/D93N/D118R/D134R/E139K, with reference to the wild type sequence positions (referred to therein as “M2MspA”). See U.S. Publication No. 2012/0055792. Such mutations can result in a MspA nanopore that comprises a vestibule having a length from about 2 to about 9 nm and a diameter from about 2 to about 6 nm, and a constriction zone having a length from about 0.3 to about 3 nm and a diameter from about 0.3 to about 3 nm, wherein the vestibule and constriction zone together define a tunnel. Furthermore, the amino acid substitutions described in these examples provide a greater net positive charge in the vestibule of the nanopore, further enhancing the energetic favorability of interacting with a negatively charged polymer analyte end.

Some nanopores, such as MspA protein nanopores, can comprise a variably shaped tunnel component through which the polymer analyte moves. For example, an exemplary embodiment where MspA is disposed in a lipid bilayer membrane. The MspA nanopore comprises an outer entrance rim region that contacts the illustrated enzyme. The widest interior section of the tunnel is often referred to as the vestibule. The narrowest portion of the interior tunnel is referred to as the constriction zone. The vestibule and a constriction zone together form the tunnel. A “vestibule” in MspA is a cone-shaped portion of the interior of the nanopore whose diameter generally decreases from one end to the other along a central axis, where the narrowest portion of the vestibule is connected to the constriction zone. Stated otherwise, the vestibule of MspA may generally be visualized as “goblet-shaped.” Because the vestibule is goblet-shaped, the diameter changes along the path of a central axis, where the diameter is larger at one end than the opposite end. The diameter may range from about 2 nm to about 6 nm. Optionally, the diameter is about, at least about, or at most about 2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 5.0, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, or 6.0 nm, or any range derivable therein. The length of the central axis may range from about 2 nm to about 6 nm. Optionally, the length is about, at least about, or at most about 2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 5.0, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, or 6.0 nm, or any range derivable therein. When referring to “diameter” herein, one can determine a diameter by measuring center-to-center distances or atomic surface-to-surface distances.

The term “constriction zone” generally refers to the narrowest portion of the tunnel of the nanopore, in terms of diameter, that is connected to the vestibule. The length of the constriction zone can range, for example, from about 0.3 nm to about 20 nm. Optionally, the length is about, at most about, or at least about 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, or 3 nm, or any range derivable therein. The diameter of the constriction zone can range from about 0.3 nm to about 2 nm. Optionally, the diameter is about, at most about, or at least about 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, or 3 nm, or any range derivable therein. In other embodiment, such as those incorporating solid state pores, the range of dimension (length or diameter) can extend up to about 20 nm. For example, the constriction zone of a solid state nanopore is about, at most about, or at least about 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 1, 2 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 nm, or any range derivable therein. Larger dimension in such nanopores can be preferable depending on the polymer used in the method. As described in more detail below, the constriction zone is generally the part of the nanopore structure where the presence of a polymer, such as a nucleic acid, can influence the ionic current from one side of the pore to the other side of the nanopore. FIG. 2B provides an illustrative diagram of a constriction zone that is sensitive to a subsequence of several nucleotides of a polymer. In this example, a specific position within the constriction zone has the highest sensitivity for determining the current through the nanopore, as indicated by the vertical line and an indication of 0 nm displacement. Thus, the nucleotide residing in that position at any time will provide the greatest influence on the current signal and the neighboring nucleotides in the constriction zone have diminished influence on the signal. Accordingly, the dimensions of the nanopore's constriction zone can influence the resolution of the current signal as it relates to the structure (and sequence identity) of the analyte polymer residing therein. In some instances, the term “constriction zone” is used in a functional context based on the obtained resolution of the nanopore and, thus, the term is not necessarily limited by any specific parameter of physical dimension. Thus, a nanopore's functional constriction zone can be optimized by modifying aspects of the nanopore system but without providing for any physical modification to the nanopore itself.

In some embodiments, the nanopore can be a solid state nanopore. A solid-state layer is not of biological origin. In other words, a solid state layer is not derived from or isolated from a biological environment such as an organism or cell, or a synthetically manufactured version of a biologically available structure. Solid state nanopores can be produced as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,258,838 and 7,504,058, incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. Briefly, solid state layers can be formed from both organic and inorganic materials including, but not limited to, microelectronic materials, insulating materials such as Si3N4, Al203, and SiO, organic and inorganic polymers such as polyamide, plastics such as Teflon®, or elastomers such as two-component addition-cure silicone rubber, and glasses. The solid state layer may be formed from graphene. Suitable graphene layers are disclosed in WO 20091035647 and WO 20111046706. Solid state nanopores have the advantage that they are more robust and stable. Furthermore, solid state nanopores can in some cases be multiplexed and batch fabricated in an efficient and cost-effective manner. Finally, they might be combined with micro-electronic fabrication technology. In some embodiments, the nanopore comprises a hybrid protein/solid state nanopore in which a nanopore protein is incorporated into a solid state nanopore. In some embodiments, the nanopore is a biologically adapted solid-state pore.

In some cases, the nanopore is disposed within a membrane, thin film, layer, or bilayer. For example, biological (e.g., proteinaceous) nanopores can be inserted into an amphiphilic layer such as a biological membrane, for example, a lipid bilayer. An amphiphilic layer is a layer formed from amphiphilic molecules, such as phospholipids, which have both hydrophilic and lipophilic properties. The amphiphilic layer can be a monolayer or a bilayer. The amphiphilic layer may be a co-block polymer. Alternatively, a biological pore may be inserted into a solid state layer.

The membrane, thin film, layer, or bilayer typically separates a first conductive liquid medium and a second conductive liquid medium to provide a nonconductive barrier between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium. The nanopore, thus, provides liquid communication between the first and second conductive liquid media through its internal tunnel. In some embodiments, the pore provides the only liquid communication between the first and second conductive liquid media. The conductive liquid media typically comprises electrolytes or ions that can flow from the first conductive liquid medium to the second conductive liquid medium through the interior of the nanopore. Liquids employable in methods described herein are well-known in the art. Descriptions and examples of such media, including conductive liquid media, are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 7,189,503, for example, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The first and second liquid media may be the same or different, and either one or both may comprise one or more of a salt, a detergent, or a buffer. Indeed, any liquid media described herein may comprise one or more of a salt, a detergent, or a buffer. Additionally, any liquid medium described herein may comprise a viscosity altering substance or a velocity altering substance.

In some cases, the first and second conductive liquid media located on either side of the nanopore are referred to as being on the cis and trans regions, where the protein analyte and the associated polymer are provided in the cis region. However, it will be appreciated that in some embodiments, the protein analyte to be analyzed and the associated polymer can be provided in the trans region and, upon application of the electrical potential, the polymer enters the nanopore from the trans side of the system. In some cases, the entire length of the polymer does not pass through the pore, but only certain portions or segments of the polymer pass through the nanopore for analysis. The directionality and rate of translocation can be regulated using various mechanisms such as applied voltage or the incorporation of a nanopore in the reverse orientation.

Nanopore systems also incorporate structural elements to measure and/or apply an electrical potential across the nanopore-bearing membrane or film. For example, the system can include a pair of drive electrodes that drive current through the nanopores. Typically, the negative pole is disposed in the cis region and the positive pole is disposed in the trans region. Additionally, the system can include one or more measurement electrodes that measure the current through the nanopore. These can include, for example, a patch-clamp amplifier or a data acquisition device. For example, nanopore systems can include an Axopatch-200B patch-clamp amplifier (Axon Instruments, Union City, Calif.) to apply voltage across the bilayer and measure the ionic current flowing through the nanopore. For example, in some embodiments, the applied electrical field includes a direct or constant current that is between about 10 mV and about 1 V. In some embodiments that include protein-based nanopores embedded in lipid membranes, the applied current includes a direct or constant current that is between about 10 mV and 300 mV, such as about 10 mV, 20 mV, 30 mV, 40 mV, 50 mV, 60 mV, 70 mV, 80 mV, 90 mV, 100 mV, 110 mV, 120 mV, 130 mV, 140 mV, 150 mV, 160 mV, 170 mV, 180 mV, 190 mV, 200 mV, 210 mV, 220 mV, 230 mV, 240 mV, 250 mV, 260 mV, 270 mV, 280 mV, 290 mV, 300 mV, or any voltage therein. In some embodiments, the applied electrical field is between about 40 mV and about 200 mV. In some embodiments, the applied electrical field includes a direct or constant current that is between about 100 mV and about 200 mV. In some embodiments, the applied electrical direct or constant current field is about 180 mV. In other embodiments where solid state nanopores are used, the applied direct or constant current electrical field can be in a similar range as described, up to as high as 1 V. As will be understood, the voltage range that can be used can depend on the type of nanopore system being used and the desired effect.

Persons of skill in the art will readily appreciate that the reverse electrical potential as the values and ranges described above can also be applied. This may be applicable where a molecular motor is characterized in the context of an electrical field that resists the force applied by the molecular motor on the polymer.

In some embodiments, the electrical potential is not constant, but rather is variable about a reference potential. Such use of variable potential in the context of a nucleic acid polymer can cause stretching of the polymer to provide for more data sampling for each position of the polymer relative to the nanopore. This can be applied to methods involving a molecular motor with a dynamic association with the polymer, or to methods involving covalently coupled polymers that do not move in discrete steps but are rather anchored by the protein. See PCT/US2014/059360, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

It is generally noted that the use of the term “or” in the claims is used to mean “and/or” unless explicitly indicated to refer to alternatives only or the alternatives are mutually exclusive, although the disclosure supports a definition that refers to only alternatives and “and/or.”

Following long-standing patent law, the words “a” and “an,” when used in conjunction with the word “comprising” in the claims or specification, denotes one or more, unless specifically noted.

Unless the context clearly requires otherwise, throughout the description and the claims, the words “comprise,” “comprising,” and the like are to be construed in an inclusive sense as opposed to an exclusive or exhaustive sense; that is to say, in the sense of “including, but not limited to.” Words using the singular or plural number also include the plural and singular number, respectively. Additionally, the words “herein,” “above,” and “below,” and words of similar import, when used in this application, shall refer to this application as a whole and not to any particular portions of the application. Words such as “about” and “approximately” imply minor variation around the stated value, usually within a standard margin of error, such as within 10% or 5% of the stated value.

Disclosed are materials, compositions, and components that can be used for, can be used in conjunction with, can be used in preparation for, or are products of the disclosed methods and compositions. It is understood that, when combinations, subsets, interactions, groups, etc., of these materials are disclosed, each of various individual and collective combinations is specifically contemplated, even though specific reference to each and every single combination and permutation of these compounds may not be explicitly disclosed. This concept applies to all aspects of this disclosure including, but not limited to, steps in the described methods. Thus, specific elements of any foregoing embodiments can be combined or substituted for elements in other embodiments. For example, if there are a variety of additional steps that can be performed, it is understood that each of these additional steps can be performed with any specific method steps or combination of method steps of the disclosed methods, and that each such combination or subset of combinations is specifically contemplated and should be considered disclosed. Additionally, it is understood that the embodiments described herein can be implemented using any suitable material such as those described elsewhere herein or as known in the art.

Publications cited herein and the subject matter for which they are cited are hereby specifically incorporated by reference in their entireties.

The following describes an illustrative use of the disclosed method to characterize the association between the molecular motor, helicase hel308, with DNA at a sub-Angstrom level of resolution.

Abstract

The development of an in vitro high-resolution nanopore sensor to observe enzyme activity is described. An electric field through the engineered protein porin, MspA, causes an ion current to flow. As the enzyme draws single stranded DNA through the pore, the nucleotides of the DNA control this ion current. Analysis of the ion current, provides a real-time record of how the enzyme processes the DNA. As demonstrated herein, the motion of DNA through enzymes can be resolved with up to 35 pm longitudinal resolution and with sub-millisecond time scales.

The utility of this method on the helicase he130 TGA by resolving an ATP-dependent and an ATP-independent step for each single nucleotide advance. The spatial and temporal resolution of this new low-cost single molecule technique allows exploration of hitherto unseen enzyme dynamics in real-time.

Results and Discussion

A novel tool, referred to as Picometer Ioncurrent Nanopore Transducer (PINT), is presented here to examine molecular motors based on DNA translocation through a nanopore. PINT allows the observation of the motion of nucleic acids relative to the enzyme that processes them with a precision of tens of picometers, with a time scale shorter than a millisecond and with a load of 20-40 pN. PINT's intrinsic sensitivity is applied herein by observing a helicase. In its basic form, PINT uses a single nanometer-sized pore. An electrostatic potential applied across the pore causes an ion current to flow. DNA, on which an enzyme is bound, is drawn into the pore by the electrostatic potential. The ssDNA fits through the pore but the enzyme is too wide to pass through the pore. Once the enzyme comes to rest on the pore, it limits the DNA translocation at the speed at which it the DNA moves through the enzyme, while the composition of the DNA in the narrowest part of the pore controls the ion current. The ion current changes indicate the DNA's procession through the enzyme with surprisingly high precision (FIG. 2). In order for individual nucleotides to control the current, the nanopore must have features commensurate with the spacing between the nucleotides. Nature provides rugged protein pores with atomistically reproducible features. These pores can be customized through mutation. For our research in nanopore sequencing of DNA, we developed specific mutants (Butler, T. Z., et al., “Single-molecule DNA detection with an engineered MspA protein nanopore,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 105:20647-20652 (2008)) of the protein pore Mycobacterium smegmatis porin A, MspA. This pore has a short and narrow constriction (FIG. 1A) that is optimal for resolving individual nucleotides along DNA (Derrington, I. M., et al., “Nanopore DNA sequencing with MspA,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 107:16060-16065 (2010); Manrao, E. A., et al., PLoS ONE 6, e25723 (2011)). However, to realize MspA's high-resolution sensing capability, DNA traversing through the pore must be held stationary (Derrington, I. M., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 107:16060-16065 (2010); Manrao, E. A., et al., Nature Biotechnology 30: 349-353 (2011)) or move slow enough to resolve picoampere current changes. In Manrao et al. (Manrao, E. A., et al., “Reading DNA at single-nucleotide resolution with a mutant MspA nanopore and phi29 DNA polymerase,” Nature Biotechnology 30:349-353 (2012)), we used the DNA polymerase (DNAP) of phi29 to draw DNA through MspA. We had observed a succession of discrete ion current levels (FIG. 1B). The duration of these levels was stochastic with time constants of tens of milliseconds. Plotting the succession of ion current amplitudes revealed current patterns reproducible to within picoamperes (FIG. 1C). Each level was associated with the DNA's advance by one nucleotide and the current pattern was matched to the DNA sequence (Manrao, E. A., et al., Nature Biotechnology 30:349-353 (2012)). In subsequent studies, we showed how the magnitude of the ion current levels was related to the nucleotide sequence (Laszlo et al., “Decoding long nanopore sequencing reads of natural DNA,” Nature Biotechnology 32:829-833 (2014)), laying the foundation of nanopore strand sequencing.

Because of the finite length of MspA's constriction zone and Brownian motion, each current level was the time average involving about four nucleotides, effectively applying Gaussian smoothing to the succession of single nucleotide's current signals. Had the DNA been moved continuously, rather than in one nucleotide step, one would expect a smooth evolution of the ion current, i(x), where x is the position of the DNA relative to the pore. The discrete steps that the phi29 DNAP provides sample this smooth curve at one-nucleotide intervals. Had the DNAP paused at additional steps that moved the DNA by a partial nucleotide, we would have observed additional levels at current values that would fall on this smooth curve i(x). The position, x, of these steps can be found by inverting x=i⁻¹(x). Locally, a small position change Ax can be inferred from a current change Al, in first order, by Δx=Δi/(di/dx). For DNA sequences that contain large di/dx, this allows for detection of DNA position changes of much less than one nucleotide.

To illustrate the achievable precision of PINT, we used a phi29 DNAP to draw a section of DNA through the pore's constriction that produces a large and nearly linear slope in ion current. FIG. 2 shows the levels around an abasic site in DNA which produces particularly large currents. The superposition of levels from multiple DNA translocations demonstrates the reproducibility of levels. Assuming the current slope to be linear and the interphosphate distance to be 690 pm, this results in only a ˜35 pm position uncertainty for a single passage of one DNA molecule.

In another demonstration, we used PINT at driving forces of 180 mV and 140 mV, again with DNA drawn by phi29 DNAP. Because of the elasticity of the ˜11 nucleotide-long DNA section between the DNAP and MspA's constriction, we expected that the level pattern at 140 mV would be shifted compared to that at 180 mV. After normalizing the current amplitudes, we compared the two level patterns (FIG. 2E and FIG. 3D) and found the patterns displaced by ˜0.3 nucleotide positions. This shift is in agreement with experimental force-stretching curves for ssDNA (Smith et al., Science, New Series, 271(5250):795-799 (1996); Bosco et al., Nucleic Acids Research, 42(3) (2014)) demonstrating that the small DNA motions are well resolved using PINT.

With PINT's precision established, we needed to demonstrate the tool's usefulness to study the molecular motors. Translocases, including helicases and polymerases, are particularly interesting for a variety of reasons as they are associated with human aliments. For example, mutations in helicases are involved in a number of conditions, such as Cerebro-oculo-facio-skeletal syndromes, Bloom, Werners and Rothmund-Thomson, Baller-Gerold, and Warsaw Breakage syndromes, as well as cancer. Mutations to human polymerases are also associated with a number of abnormalities including mitochondrial diseases and cancers. To ensure their replication, viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C, and Ebola encode their own helicases, polymerases, and/or packaging motors in their genomes. Therefore, helicases and polymerases have become potential drug targets to interfere with viral infections and mechanistic understanding of these motors is particularly valuable.

Here we studied the superfamily II (SF2) helicase, hel308. He1308 is an ATP-dependent ski2-like helicase/translocase that unwinds duplex DNA moving on a single strand in the 3′ to 5′ direction. He1308 is found to be conserved in many archaea as well eukaryota and is also found in humans. With a known crystal structure, hel308 is a good model system for understanding processive SF2 enzymes. We chose the robust hel308 of Thermococcus gammatolerans EJ3 (Accession #YP_002959236.1).

We used similar or identical DNA constructs as in previously reported DNA sequencing experiments with phi29 DNAP (Manrao, E. A., et al., Nature Biotechnology 30:349-353 (2012), Laszlo et al., Nature Biotechnology 32:829-833 (2014)) (FIG. 2E), but in order to move the DNA's 5′ end towards MspA's vestibule, as during the enzymatic activity of the DNAP experiments, we annealed a complementary strand to our DNA samples. When the single stranded 5′ end overhang filed through MspA's constriction, the complimentary strand was practically instantly removed, letting the DNA pass through the pore until it was held by the helicase. With ATP present, the helicase began reeling the DNA back through the pore, ultimately returning it to the cis side. We recorded 1000 current traces consistent with enzymatic activity. The current patterns were qualitatively similar to those observed with phi29 DNAP (FIG. 3A), but for hel308, we found approximately twice as many levels (FIG. 3B) as with phi29 DNAP, even though the same number nucleotides had passed through the constriction. Similar results were obtained with other DNA sequences (not shown). We concluded that PINT's spatial and temporal resolution allowed us to observe the internucleotide motion of DNA through the helicase directly. After aligning to the known sequence and current patterns (Laszlo et al., Nature Biotechnology 32:829-833 (2014)), and building consensus current level patterns (FIG. 3A), we observed that the average duration of levels alternated between long and short levels. The duration distribution of each level is characterized by its own time constant. FIG. 3C shows the mean duration for each level, further elucidating that each one-nucleotide advance involves two distinct steps with distinct time constants.

To investigate the origin of the two steps, we varied the ATP concentration. FIG. 3D shows the average duration for the two steps plotted against the ATP concentration (FIGS. 3C, 3D, and 3E). The ATP titration reveals that one of the steps is ATP-dependent, while the other step is ATP-independent. Under the conditions of the experiment (22° C., 300 mM KCl, 5 mM MgCl₂, and 180 mV), the ATP-dependent step followed Michaelis Menton kinetics with a maximum velocity of 15.2+/−1.3/s and the Michaelis constant of 92.5+/−9.9 μmol. For the ATP-independent step we measured a rate of 4.5+/−0.4 s⁻¹. FIG. 3F suggests that step duration may depend on sequence. We correlated the half-life of each step with the sequence offset by n_(off) nucleotides. We found that guanine 14 nucleotides from the constriction is associated with increased level duration (FIG. 3E) in the ATP independent step. This offset corresponds to a nucleotide position located well within hel308.

Next, we analyzed the length of the two substeps along the DNA. We used a 3^(rd) order spline to model the smooth continuous current profile derived from the consensus of 393 translocation events. Using ATP-dependent levels, we interpolated the distance to the ATP-independent level towards the 5′ side. The distribution of step lengths in units of nucleotide spacing were converted to distance along the DNA using the contour length Lc=690 pm/base (Bosco et al., Nucleic Acids Research, 42(3) (2014)). Fitting the step length to the uncertainty weighted step size distribution yields a most probable value of 0.43±0.11 L_(c).

It should be noted that the step length may depend on the location of the hel308 contact points with the rim of MspA.

The spatial and temporal resolution of this new single molecule technique allows exploration of hitherto unseen enzyme dynamics in real-time. The unprecedented real-time resolution of PINT allows observing DNA motion of just a few tens of picometers. At first it may be surprising that such a precision can be achieved given that Brownian motion constantly repositions the enzyme on the pore, thereby affecting the DNA's position in the constriction. However, Brownian motion explores all possible configurations with such a high rate so that a millisecond measurement delivers a precise average value. It appears that much of the remaining spatial, as well as temporal fluctuations observed with PINT, can be attributed to the enzyme's activity. It is likely that the study of these fluctuations using PINT will contribute to detailed mechanistic understanding of the enzyme functioning.

Similar to many other single molecule techniques, PINT applies a force of tens of piconewtons to the enzyme. In order to extrapolate to in vivo conditions, which are generally in a lower force regime, we calibrated the force by comparing to DNA stretching curves taken with optical tweezer (Smith et al., Science, New Series, 271(5250):795-799 (1996); Bosco et al., Nucleic Acids Research, 42(3) (2014)). At 180 mV, where the bulk of the PINT data was taken, the force on the DNA is estimated to be 35±10 pN. A direct force measurement with reduced uncertainty is in progress.

PINT's extreme sensitivity can also be extended to other molecular motors that do not process polymers. By attaching DNA to such enzymes or motors, it will be possible to measure real-time conformational changes associated with the enzyme activity.

TABLE 1 compares PINT with the most often used single molecule techniques used to study translocase activity.

TABLE 1 Comparison of single molecule techniques to study translocases. Single molecule Spatial Temporal Through- technique resolution resolution put Force Comments Example Reference(s) TIR smFRET <3 bp 30 ms 200-400 0 pN Limited spatial (Myong et al., 2007) (8 ms) range 2-8 nm Confocal <3 bp 1 ms >100 0 pN No time (Theissen et al., 2008) smFRET trajectories of individual molecules Magnetic 10 bp 50 ms 10-20 5-40 pN Force method (Dessinges et al., 2004) tweezers with moderate (Lionnet et al., 2007) throughput (Sun et al., 2008) Optical Up to 1 bp 20 ms ~1 1-40 pN Many variants (Cheng et al., 2007) tweezers (Johnson et al., 2007) (Perkins et al., 2004) AFM force >5 bp 1 ms ~1 15-100 pN Low throughput; (Marsden et al., 2006) spectroscopy difficult cantilever functionalization PINT 0.05 bp <1 ms >100 10-40 pN Simple; The present disclosure inexpensive; sophisticated data analysis

PINT is highly parallelizable for high throughput desired in industrial applications, such as drug screening. Importantly, PINT is a simple and low-cost single molecule technique that can be practiced in a broad range of laboratories.

While illustrative embodiments have been illustrated and described, it will be appreciated that various changes can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. 

1. A method of characterizing a protein in a nanopore system comprising a nanopore disposed in a membrane that separates a first conductive liquid medium from a second conductive liquid medium, wherein the nanopore comprises a tunnel that provides liquid communication between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium, and wherein the protein is physically associated with a hydrocarbon polymer in the first conductive liquid medium, wherein the hydrocarbon polymer comprises a backbone with a carbon chain, the method comprising: (a) applying an electrical potential between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium and causing the polymer to interact with the nanopore tunnel, wherein the protein is to pass through the nanopore tunnel; (b) measuring an ion current through the nanopore during the interaction of the polymer with the nanopore tunnel to provide a current pattern; (c) determining a position and/or movement of at least one polymer subunit in the nanopore tunnel from the current pattern; and (d) associating the position and/or movement of the at least one polymer subunit with a characteristic of the protein. 2.-5. (canceled)
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the protein is an enzyme.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the enzyme is a molecular motor.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the molecular motor is a translocase, a polymerase, a helicase, an exonuclease, a viral packaging motor, or a topoisomerase.
 9. The method of claim 6, wherein the enzyme is a Brownian motor, Brownian ratchet ribosome, myosin, or kinesin.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the protein is a mutant protein or fusion protein.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the protein comprises two or more domains capable of mutual interaction.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the protein is covalently coupled to the polymer.
 13. (canceled)
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the position of the at least one polymer subunit is associated with a conformational state of the protein.
 15. The method of claim 7, wherein the movement of the at least one polymer subunit is associated with a length of a discrete translocation step of the polymer within the nanopore tunnel that is conferred by the molecular motor.
 16. The method of claim 7, wherein the movement of the at least one polymer subunit is associated with a temporal duration of a discrete translocation step of the polymer within the nanopore tunnel that is conferred by the molecular motor. 17.-18. (canceled)
 19. The method of claim 6, wherein the characteristic of the enzyme is a presence or degree of modulation of enzyme activity conferred by a reaction condition or putative agonist, antagonist, or co-factor.
 20. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanopore is a solid-state nanopore, a protein nanopore, a hybrid solid state-protein nanopore, a biologically adapted solid-state nanopore, or a DNA origami nanopore.
 21. The method of claim 19, wherein the protein nanopore is alpha-hemolysin, leukocidin, Mycobacterium smegmatis porin A (MspA), outer membrane porin F (OmpF), outer membrane porin G (OmpG), outer membrane phospholipase A, Neisseria autotransporter lipoprotein (NalP), WZA, Nocardia farcinica NfpA/NfpB cationic selective channel, lysenin or a homolog or variant thereof. 22.-25. (canceled)
 26. A method of characterizing a protein in a nanopore system comprising a nanopore disposed in a membrane that separates a first conductive liquid medium from a second conductive liquid medium, wherein the nanopore comprises a tunnel that provides liquid communication between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium, and wherein the protein is physically associated with a hydrocarbon polymer in the first conductive liquid medium, wherein the hydrocarbon polymer comprises a backbone with a carbon chain, the method comprising: (a) applying an electrical potential between the first conductive liquid medium and the second conductive liquid medium and causing the polymer to interact with the nanopore tunnel, wherein the protein is to pass through the nanopore tunnel; (b) measuring an ion current through the nanopore during the interaction of the polymer with the nanopore tunnel to provide a first current pattern; (c) comparing the first current pattern to a reference current pattern; (d) determining a change in position and/or movement of at least one polymer subunit in the nanopore tunnel from the position and/or movement of at least one polymer subunit in the nanopore tunnel determined from the reference current pattern; and (e) associating the change in position and/or movement of the at least one polymer subunit in the nanopore tunnel with a characteristic of the enzyme.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the nanopore system comprises a difference from the nanopore system used to generate the reference current pattern.
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the difference is the presence, absence, or difference in concentration of a putative protein agonist, antagonist, or co-factor in the first conductive medium.
 29. (canceled)
 30. The method of claim 28, wherein the characteristic is a presence or degree of modulation of protein activity or conformation conferred by the putative agonist, antagonist, or co-factor.
 31. The method of claim 27, wherein the difference is at least one amino acid difference in the amino acid sequence of the protein compared to the amino acid protein sequence in the nanopore system used to generate the reference current pattern.
 32. The method of claim 31, wherein the characteristic is a presence or degree of modulation of protein activity or conformation conferred by the amino acid difference in the amino acid sequence.
 33. (canceled) 